The Fourth Marines in China, 1927-1941

From 1927 to 1941, a unit of the United States Marine Corps, the Fourth Marines, was assigned to Shanghai, China, where its members were able to observe firsthand some of the events that led to World War Two. The Fourth Marines sailed to Shanghai from their home base in San Diego, California in February 1927 in order to protect American citizens and property in Shanghai's International Settlement. Initially, the threat to the Americans came from a conflict internal to China, but, within a few years, it evolved into one resulting from the tensions between China and Japan.

During their fourteen years in Shanghai, the Fourth Marines were exposed to activities that would not gain the full attention of most Americans until the United States became directly involved in the war. Although the Fourth Marines were a relatively small unit (consisting at various times of between 1,200 to 1,600 men) awash in a sea of 3,000,000 Chinese nationals and tens of thousands of other foreign citizens living in Shanghai, they affected the local economy as well as local opinions of Americans, serving as "unofficial ambassadors" to the local populace. Likewise, their opinions of Chinese citizens and culture were shaped by their experiences in Shanghai.

The traditional role of the Marines has been one of a seagoing assault force, as opposed to one of a permanent ground force. Therefore, the Fourth Marines' prolonged presence in Shanghai was rather unique. Extended periods of military inactivity and relegation to the status of a quasi-police force in a war zone had a strong impact on the perceptions and morale of the members of the Fourth Marines. Their actions and opinions were directly shaped by the role to which they were assigned in Shanghai.

Deployment to Shanghai

Dr. Sun died in 1926 and would never see China unified or free of foreign domination, but Chiang undertook military operations in July, 1926 to consolidate Nationalist power throughout China. By the fall of 1926, Chiang's forces had control of the Yangtze Valley and were moving northward toward Shanghai. Foreigners in Shanghai's International Settlement began to fear that Chiang's forces would overrun the settlement, so they appealed to their governments for increased protection. When Nationalist troops overran the British settlement at Hankow in January, 1927, the United States minister to China, John Van A. MacMurray, sent an urgent request to the State Department for 20,000 troops. (2)

President Calvin Coolidge did not want to provoke the Chinese, so, instead of a large body of Army ground forces, he ordered a Marine Regiment sent to China. It was also made clear by Secretary of State Frank Kellogg that the Marines were to be used strictly to safeguard American lives and property and would not be used to protect the International Settlement as a whole. In a cable to MacMurray, Kellogg stressed that "it must be definitely understood that this force is present for the purpose of protecting American life and property at Shanghai." (3) Even though some of the other countries of the International Settlement called for a combined force to defend the settlement, directives from the State Department reiterated the order for the Marines to act only on behalf of American citizens and property. (4)

Shanghai and its International Settlement

Although Shanghai was an important Chinese city with a population of around 3,000,000 in 1927, it was dominated by the presence of foreigners. The policy of extraterritoriality, established in the 1800's, allowed the outsiders to establish settlements and govern themselves, independent of Chinese authority. The International Settlement consisted of approximately 10,000 British and American citizens, with France and Japan maintaining separate concessions. (5)

Condit and Tornbladh stated that:

The International Settlement was a Western enclave in a hostile city of three million
inhabitants. About half of its boundary rested on natural barriers -- Soochow Creek
on the northwest, and the Whangpoo River on the southeast. On the west, the defense
perimeter was pushed out beyond the political boundary to the tracks of the Shanghai-
Hangchow-Ningpo Railroad, the embankment of which made a natural defensive position.
On the south the French Concession offered a measure of protection, but, in the absence
of any agreement with the French or any knowledge of their plans, this boundary also had
to be fortified and manned. To the northeast was the densely populated Chinese quarter
of Chapei. (6)

Shanghai had been dominated by the British since the 1840's. By 1926, they controlled approximately one third of the shipping which passed through the port and their 7,000 citizens set the social tone for the city. Although the British still took the lead in affairs of the city, they were being strongly challenged by the Japanese, who had over twice as many residents as the British and controlled almost one fourth of the shipping by 1926. Japan had already overtaken Britain as the leading trading nation with China as a whole in the 1920's. (7) The United States, by comparison, had a minor role in Shanghai, with only 1800 residents and control of only twelve percent of the shipping. (8)

The International Settlement was not made up entirely of British and American residents, however. A large number of Chinese lived in and operated businesses within the boundaries of the settlement. Yet, the Chinese mayor had no authority there, the British were in charge of law enforcement, and the Americans and the British had their own courts. (9) Also, "the integrity of the International Settlement had been preserved and maintained through the coordinated efforts of British, Japanese, Italian, American, Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch military units and the Shanghai Volunteer Corps." (10)

MIlitary Role of the Fourth Marines in Shanghai, 1927-1941

Ray Poppelman, a young Corporal at the time, would later state, "We were all eager to get ashore to the International Settlement and French ConcessionÉ. Finally, liberty was granted, providing that twelve Marines stayed together, wearing bayonets and pistols." (12) Although the Marines were able to leave the ship for liberty and drill, the regiment was still not allowed to establish headquarters ashore. On March 21st, a state of emergency was declared because of Chinese fighting around the International Settlement and the Marines were finally allowed to land. (13) The Fourth Regiment was limited to an internal security role and did not come into direct contact with Chinese troops. Brigadier General Smedley Butler arrived in Shanghai in late March and took command of all Marine forces ashore. The Fourth Regiment was then attached to the Third Marine Brigade and General Butler amplified its instructions, giving it more leeway to help in perimeter defense if necessary. (14) Butler also injected some common sense and gained the favor of the men by replacing tiresome foot patrols with motor patrols. (15)

In response to the situation in China, more Marines were sent there as part of a Provisional Regiment, including the Second Battalion of the Fourth Regiment, which had originally remained behind in San Diego. However, by the time this new Regiment arrived, the situation had eased. This led to a scaling down of the Fourth Regiment; on October 4, 1927, the Second Battalion was redesignated as a unit of the Twelfth Regiment and on October 7 the Provisional Battalion was deactivated. By early 1928, the Fourth Regiment had been detached from the Third Brigade and almost all of the Marines except the Fourth Regiment had left China. On February 13, 1930, the Fourth Regiment was redesignated as simply the Fourth Marines. (16)

The situation in Shanghai would remain stable until 1932, giving the Fourth Marines a chance to settle into the city. By that time, they had become, "in effect, a permanent garrison in the International Settlement in Shanghai." (17) Although there appeared to be stability among the Chinese by that time, the Marine presence was still necessary because of growing tensions between the Chinese and Japanese.

In January 1932, hostility erupted between Chinese and Japanese civilians as a result of pressure related to the Japanese seizure of Manchuria the previous September. The Japanese army garrison in the International Settlement attacked local Chinese troops and the Shanghai Municipal Council declared a state of emergency. The Council requested the Fourth Marines to be used to guard the boundaries of the International Settlement. (18)

The Fourth Marines took up position along Soochow Creek, which was the dividing line between the settlement and the Chinese community of Chapei. Reinforcements arrived from the Philippines in early February. The Fourth Marines and their reinforcements continued to patrol the area along Soochow Creek until June, when the Chinese troops withdrew from Chapei and the state of emergency was officially ended. During the time of the emergency, the Marines' position was constantly exposed to fire from both the Chinese and Japanese, but there were no American casualties. (19)

Another opportunity for excitement came from October 1933 to July 1935, when small detachments from the units were used as guards aboard ships of the Yangtze Rapid Steamship Company. These ships had been preyed upon by pirates on their upriver voyages and the addition of Marine guards aboard all but eliminated the danger of pirates. (20)

Steamship duty allowed the Marines to get out of the local environment and see the interior of China. Robert H. Williams, a young Lieutenant at the time, was assigned to such duties and later stated that "It was 'good duty,' as marines used to refer to any duty that was undemanding, watching rural China glide by from the deck of a riverboat." (21) The threat of piracy had diminished almost completely by 1935, and the Marine detachments were withdrawn from duty on the river. (22)

Although open hostilities between the Chinese and Japanese had not taken place since 1932, this ceased in 1937 with a clash at the Marco Polo Bridge in Peiping. The tension spread to Shanghai, where two Japanese military personnel were killed by a Chinese citizen. Japan sent warships to the city and landed troops. The Nationalist Government also sent troops to the area and bitter fighting eventually broke out between the Japanese and Chinese. (23)

This new crisis led to another deployment of the Fourth Marines along Soochow Creek. Their instructions were to prevent belligerent troops from entering the American sector, but were not to use gunfire except as a last resort. Once again, the Fourth Marines were reinforced by Marines from outside China. This time, it was the Second Marine Brigade, under Brigadier General John Beaumont (an earlier commander of the Fourth Marines). The brigade arrived in Shanghai on September 19 and the Fourth Marines were attached to it the next day. (24)

Outright fighting had ceased by that time, but there was still a great deal of tension. Japan had shored up its strength in the area and then began to try to weaken the position of the Western Powers in the International Settlement. The mission of the Fourth Marines then became to thwart any attempt of the Japanese to disturb the American sector. By 1939, war in Europe had caused the other powers to reduce their strength in Shanghai, so there was little hope for their support in case of a Japanese attack. In 1940, the situation became more muddled as Italy (which had troops in the International Settlement) became allied with Japan and the Vichy government ordered French troops in the settlement into neutrality with the Japanese. When Britain withdrew its forces from the settlement in August 1940, the Fourth Marines remained as the only obstacle to Japan's goals in the International Settlement. (25)

By September 1941, conditions were so serious that officials in Shanghai strongly encouraged removal of all naval personnel from North China. Intelligence reports showed that the Japanese would soon make a move to seize the entire International Settlement. Washington agreed to the withdrawal of the Fourth Marines and permission for evacuation was given on November 10. The First Battalion and part of the Headquarters Staff departed aboard the USS President Madison, on November 27. The remaining members of the Fourth Marines departed aboard the USS President Harrison, the next day. (26)

An editorial in the Fourth Marines' newspaper, the Walla Walla, in 1937 demonstrated that they were well aware of their unique position:

"Shanghai is, as everyone knows, the most cosmopolitan city in the world; all races and
creeds are represented, and every nationality in general is judged by the conduct of their
representatives in this city. We who are Marines have the burden of a long and glorious
tradition, and as we mingle daily with people of other countries, our behavior is critically
noted, and as a result, the entire American population is accordingly catalogued by these
self-appointed ambassadors. It is an unfortunate situation unless we Marines conduct
ourselves in a manner befitting Marines, rather than halfwitted school-boys. (27)

One of the first orders of business affecting the lifestyles of the Fourth Marines was to find housing for them. This was initiated after the Marines were allowed to disembark the Chaumont in March, 1927. At first, adequate quarters could not be obtained for the entire regiment. The Third Battalion was housed in sufficient buildings, but the First and Provisional Battalions were forced to reside in quarters which the regimental surgeon found unfit. By May, the First Battalion had found adequate quarters; however, the Provisional Battalion was forced to occupy its unsatisfactory accommodations until October, when the battalion was disestablished. The buildings which were eventually acquired to house the Fourth Marines ranged from private residences to a former Christian school for girls. (28)

Ray Poppleman provided a detailed description of his unit's initial housing arrangements:

By the first of May [1927], 'emergency' pressures eased and our 3d Battalion moved from
bamboo shacks to the premises of a former Chinese warlord. The main two-story mansion
accommodated our officers. With 30 or more servants dressed in white, our officers lived
like members of royalty. A large building in the rear had at one time housed more than 300
concubines. The enlisted men lived across the street in tents. Chinese boy servants cleaned
the tents, cut the grass, washed and pressed our clothes, made our bunks, shined our shoes,
polished the brass on our leggings and belts, and ran errands. The cost was 50 cents per
Marine, per month. (29)

Officers could elect to live in the bachelor officer quarters or to take up their own residence. Many married officers brought their wives and children to Shanghai and were able to establish comfortable households with full domestic staffs. Younger, single officers could pool their resources and share nicely furnished and fully staffed housing, as well. Robert H. Williams rented an apartment with two other junior officers where they "lived amicably and well" and were able to "display our taste in rugs and, we hoped, to create a favorable impression with the food and wine we served and the variety of liqueurs and old brandy we offered with coffee." (30)

During periods when crisis or conflict did not seem imminent, there was much more time off duty than on duty. Duty hours were normally from 8:00 AM until Noon with recreation and athletics held in the afternoon. Military training was structured, but not as extensive as one might expect or as the Fourth Marine leaders may have desired, mainly because there was no room within the International Settlement to conduct full scale drills with the entire regiment. Drill consisted of a weekly route march through the settlement held individually for each company, a regimental parade at the Shanghai race course each Thursday, and a settlement defense drill every other Friday. The Marines had plenty of time to maintain their equipment and uniforms and competition with their British counterparts led the Fourth Marines to achieve a high level of "spit and polish." (31)

The most visible of organized activities were the extensive sports programs established for the Marines to enjoy. There was regimental competition in a wide variety of sports, including basketball, boxing, wrestling, track, swimming, tennis, golf, bowling and baseball. The picture at right is of the Fourth Marines volleyball championship team of 1939. Teams were also organized to compete with teams from Shanghai, other International Settlement countries, as well as teams from Tientsin, Hong Kong and Japan. According to Ray Poppelman, "We played [basketball] in the Shanghai University tournamentÉ. We knew the Chinese liked us, but they never cheered for us, and we wondered why. We learned that we were winning too many games. It was a custom that spectators cheer only for losers." (32) The Marines had a very successful record in all sports and even took up the British sport of rugby with impressive results. Since the other countries did not have experience with American football, competition in that sport was limited to an annual Thanksgiving Day game. Visiting military outfits, including the Sixth Marines and US Navy ships, also provided intense competition for "smokers," or organized boxing matches. The Fourth Marines trained hard for all such competition and came away with a very successful record. Another sport in which Marines participated was polo, but that activity was mainly pursued by officers.

Many of the athletic events were held at the Navy YMCA. Although this was a place for athletics, the YMCA also provided a wide range of "wholesome activities" for the Marines. Some examples of activities at the "Y" included tours of cultural attractions, Sunday fellowship services, contract bridge, educational talks on China, lessons in eating with chopsticks and Chinese food preparation, educational movies, and lessons in conversational Chinese and Russian language. The "Y" also housed a restaurant, which provided full meals as well as "short orders" each evening.

Along the lines of wholesome activities, there was also a Marine Brigade Church, which was staffed with chaplains and provided weekly services. Singing and other activities were also provided by the Church and its staff. Marines could attend services at other churches and synagogues in the community if the Marine Church did not meet their denominational needs. There was an added benefit to attending church, because "we were often invited to Sunday dinners at homes of missionaries and civilians," according to Ray Poppelman. (33)

Life "on the town" must have been very interesting and exciting to the men of the Fourth Marines. Their money went a long way in the local economy and, thus, they were able to maintain a much higher standard of living than in the United States. The exchange rate varied, but was reported at five "Mex" to one U.S. dollar in 1932 (34) and six to one in 1939. (35) There was also a wide variety of goods on which to spend their money. There were many social and night clubs, as well as department stores, restaurants, dance schools and at least four movie theaters which showed current American pictures.

The nightclubs seem to have been in intense competition to attract the Marines. Claims of the best drinks and the friendliest girls were common in advertising for the clubs. Interestingly, the "girls" who worked in the clubs were not all local Chinese women -- many were White Russian women whose families had relocated to Shanghai in the wake of the Russian Revolution. To dance with the women in the clubs, it was usually necessary to but tickets in advance. Marines could also open "club books," which allowed them to charge their purchases at the clubs and settle up with the proprietors on payday. According to Robert H. Williams, "One seldom paid cash for anything on the China Coast. Chits were totaled and billed at the end of the month, sometimes even longer intervals." (36) In addition to the night clubs, there were also many social clubs which the Marines could join in Shanghai. For Marine officers, there were the American Club, the Columbia Country Club and The Shanghai Club, to name just a few. (37) At least one Marine, William Metzler, also joined the Shanghai Homing Pigeon Club. He explained that "they made me an honorary member and [I] attended all their posh functions. The club was made up of affluent citizens of ShanghaiÉ. They accepted me because I knew pigeons. . . . Lots of betting money was at stake." (38)

Eventually, the Marines set up their own club, known simply as the Fourth Marines Club, and it included many amenities which were a good diversion for enlisted Marines. After being located in various places throughout the settlement, a permanent club was established in 1938. The new club was very posh, with bars, a bowling alley, a library and a soda fountain among the attractions.

Judging from advertisements, many products available in the United States were also available in Shanghai. Everything from familiar brands of liquor to Kodak motion picture cameras seemed to be available. One of the first sights seen by the Marines upon entering Shanghai aboard the Chaumont in 1927 was a large billboard advertising an American chewing gum. (39)

In addition, the Marines were able to purchase tailor-made civilian clothes and uniforms for a fraction of their cost at home. Ray Poppelman said that "Chinese tailors made clothes from the finest chino khaki. Shirts, ties, camel-hair bathrobes (with dragon designs) and suits were all tailor-made specifically for the purchaser. Even silk underwear!" (40) Once again, the exchange rate and low cost of local goods made Shanghai a very favorable place for the leathernecked consumers.

The Marines were also granted regular leave while in Shanghai. Many used their leave to visit such attractions as the Great Wall or to take excursions up the Yangtze River. After hostilities broke out between China and Japan, there were even tours advertised that would take sightseers to the "war torn" areas. Others chose to hoard their leave for extended cruises on their way back to the United States when their tour was completed.

To chronicle the activities of the Fourth Marines, a weekly news magazine, called the Walla Walla, was established in 1928. It was written by enlisted Marines and tended to relate mainly to the lives and interests of the enlisted men. It was a very professionally produced periodical and usually featured a color cover with impressive artwork. Stories focused on athletics, professional topics and events in the war between China and Japan. There was even a farcical advice column written by "Cissy Wu" for those Marines with romantic troubles. The Walla Walla was one of the best military publications of its day and its circulation reached around the world, especially to former members of the Fourth Marines.

Another first rate publication put out by the Fourth Marines was its Annual, which was first published in 1931-32. The Annual was a yearbook style publication and included photos of all the officers and men, as well as photos and descriptions of the key events each year. Also included in the Annual was a history of the Fourth Marines and a chronology of the past year's events.

While engaged in their off-duty pursuits, it could never be forgotten by the Marines that they were ambassadors in a land where any wrong move could become an embarrassment to both the Marine Corps and the United States. Ray Poppelman succinctly stated that "In a city known for gambling, beggars, prostitutes and sleazy nightclubs, Marines had to be careful." (41) There was a great need for self-control, especially as tension between China and Japan turned into full scale open conflict. Aggressive Japanese acts such as the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, the sinking of the USS Panay, and the bombing of the USS Augusta, tested the patience and neutrality of all Americans, from President Franklin Roosevelt down to the lowest ranking private in the Fourth Marines. As the world braced for war and, one by one, the other countries departed the International Settlement, the members of the Fourth Marines became painfully aware that their time of leisure and "police duty" would soon come to an unwelcome end.

Conclusion

However, there is much evidence to indicate that life in China grew tedious, especially since garrison duty was not an established mission of the Marine Corps. Because American leaders did not want to provoke the Chinese or the Japanese, the Marines had their hands tied. They were forced to stand by as atrocities were committed and could only intervene in the fighting to protect American lives and property or in self defense. Those Marines who were frustrated with their role in Shanghai could take solace in the fact that the rotation schedule was approximately two years.

Ray Poppelman told of witnessing "wholesale executions" in 1927. He remembered seeing "two trucks loaded with executionersÉ. Communists were marched to the river's edge, shot in the head while kneeling and then kicked in the riverÉ. It was reported that 3,000 Communist soldiers were executed that day." (42) Marines would witness executions, torture and rape throughout their tenure in Shanghai and would be able to do little to prevent any of those acts.

The prevalence of executions and torture is evidenced by the scrapbooks brought back from China by the Marines. There are photographs of firing squads, beheadings, disembowelments, rape and such torture as "the death of a thousand cuts." Apparently these photographs were commercially available, because there are exact duplicates in many scrapbooks with the name of a commercial studio stamped on the backs of the photographs. Although morbid, these photographs are chilling testaments to the atrocities that were carried out by both the Chinese and Japanese in Shanghai between 1927 and 1941.

The Marines' views of the Chinese citizens encompassed a wide spectrum and seem contradictory. Some treated the Chinese with the utmost respect, while others seem to have regarded them as sub-human. While editorials in the Walla Walla urged Marines to get to know the local culture and try to appreciate it, the paper also carried poems and cartoons which perpetuated the worst stereotypes of the Chinese people. While Marines sought out the company of Chinese women, they were discouraged from marrying them. It seems that the frustrations of being stationed in a strange land with an unclear mission were manifested in the perpetuation of racial stereotypes and scapegoating for many Marines.

Garrison duty also led to biting sarcasm. One reflection of that sarcasm was shown in the issuance of the "Soochow Creek Medal." The Marines took it upon themselves to create this farcical medal when they were called upon to guard the borders of the International Settlement in 1932 and 1937. The medals were designed and produced locally and were available for sale to all Marines who participated in the defense of the settlement. They were authorized for wear at all times "except when in uniform." The most frustrating aspect of the defense of the settlement was that the Marines were sometimes sitting in the cross-fire of the Japanese and Chinese troops and could do nothing but watch and hope that they were not hit by stray rounds.

Sarcasm and humor in general found their way into the pages of the Walla Walla, as well. There were numerous cartoons and stories lampooning the plight of the leathernecks in Shanghai. There were also sections of the paper dedicated to gossip, which provided a safety valve through which to relieve stress and boredom. Routine humor in the paper revolved around women, alcohol, black eyes, curfews and civilian clothes on liberty.

The limited space which prevented large scale drills on a regular basis and the lures of the city made it difficult to keep many Marines in fighting condition. These problems were addressed by Colonel Henry Davis, an early commander of the Fourth Marines in Shanghai, who longed to take the Marines to the Philippines where he could follow a schedule "of an intensive nature and get the booze and deviltry boiled out of these men by keeping them hard at field work in the hot weather and over the wide terrain which is available in Olongapo." (43)

Although the Marines seemingly had their hands tied, were constantly tempted by the vices available in Shanghai and found it difficult to conduct large-scale exercises, they were still recognized as one of the most efficient units in the Marine Corps. They were routinely praised for their appearance in uniform by inspecting officers and were regularly one of the best units in Asia in the area of marksmanship. There also seems to have been a great deal of esprit de corps, whether demonstrated under battle conditions, on playing fields or on liberty. Nobody who did not experience life in Shanghai during the era of the "China Marines" can capture the essence of it or explain what made it special. Perhaps the best way to assess the impact of the Fourth Marines on life in Shanghai is to recall their sendoff, on November 28, 1941, under the cloud of an impending war with Japan and an uncertain fate.

As described by Condit and Turnbladh, the departure of the last group went as follows:

About 0900, the remainder of the 4th Marines formed outside the 1st Battalion billet and marched
down Bubbling Well and Nanking Roads to the President Line dock on the Bund. Thousands
of cheering people waving American and Chinese flags lined the streets to see the regiment,
which had played such an intimate part in community life for over 14 years, parade through
the Settlement for the last time. At the dock, members of the Municipal Council, the foreign
consuls and diplomatic representatives, the commanding officers of all military units, including
the Japanese, and the heads of many civic organizations were gathered to bid the Marines
farewell. (44)

2. Condit and Turnbladh, 126-127.

3. Condit and Turnbladh, 127.

4. Condit and Turnbladh, 128-129.

5. Williams, Robert H., The Old Corps: A Portrait of the U.S. Marine Corps Between the Wars, 42.

6. Condit and Turnbladh, 130.

7. Iriye, Akira, China and Japan in the Global Setting, 55.

8. Condit and Turnbladh, 123.

9. Williams, 42.

10. U.S. Marine Corps Hisorical Center, A Brief History of the Fourth Marines, 13.

11. Condit and Turnbladh, 129.

12. Poppelman, Ray, ³A China Marine: The Adventures of Ray Poppelman,² Leatherneck, June 1992, 20.

13. Condit and Turnbladh, 134.

14. U.S. Marine Corps Historical Center, 13.

15. Condit and Turnbladh, 137.

16. U.S. Marine Corps Historical Center, 14-15.

17. Condit and Turnbladh, 144.

18. U.S. Marine Corps Historical Center, 16.

19. U.S. Marine Corps Historical Center, 16-17.

20. Condit and Turnbladh, 164.

21. Williams, 58.

22. U.S. Marine Corps Historical Center, 18.

23. Condit and Turnbladh, 166-169.

24. U.S. Marine Corps Historical Center, 19.

25. U.S. Marine Corps Historical Center, 20-21.

26. Condit and Turnbladh, 192-193.

27. ³Editorially Speaking,² Walla Walla, November 13, 1937, 10.

28. Condit and Turnbladh, 146.

29. Poppelman, 23.

30. Williams, 55-56.

31. Williams, 45-46.

32. Poppelman, 23.

33. Poppelman, 23.

34. Williams, 56.

35. ³Wesley Barnett is Trying to Forget Shanghai Filth Now That He¹s Back Home, Says Stateside Paper,² Walla Walla, July 4, 1939, 22.

36. Williams, 56.

37. Williams, 50.

38. Metzler, William, letter to Colonel R. D. Mickelson, March 12, 1994. 39. Condit and Turnbladh, 120.

40. Poppelman, 24.

41. Poppelman, 20.

42. Poppelman, 23.

43. Condit and Turnbladh, 146.

44. Condit and Turnbladh, 193.